Research: Popular Theory

Popular Music Theory

Introduction:

There have been popular music theories created by popular theorists that are particularly important
when learning about he music industry as this type of research will give the audience an insight on why particular decisions or characteristics associated with music videos are made. Theorists are also have great understanding and knowledge  about the topic they researched and theorised therefore, their theory is likely to be useful and effective. In this post, I will be drawing upon the popular culture theory, Antonio Gramsci's hegemony theory, the Frankfurt school, Theodor Adorno's theory, The Birmingham School and Dick Hebidge's theory. Each and every one of these theories has a unique understanding although some theorists have similar opinions in regards of popular culture and some may disagree. Each of these theorists clarifies how the music industry is perceived in their perspectives as they identify the division in class and how this has impacted society on a whole.

• Popular culture: Popular culture is a theory in which explains the ideas and attitudes of the mainstream culture in society which has a huge influence upon the audience. Popular culture became mainstream in the mid 1980's and is said to be dominantly followed by the working class through media such as music, arts, films and even fashions which are all the platforms of popular culture in todays society. On the other hand, middle class individuals in society follow 'true art; and look down on this. The music industry is linked to how the media promotes artists and their songs in certain ways. For example, Michael Jackson was regarded as one of the highest in the music industry and was earned his title of the 'King of Pop' in the media. Despite his death and the popularity of other artists nowadays, the title still remains. This is evident that popular culture exists in society and within the music industry.

• Theodor Adorno: Adorno was a German sociologist and was known for his critical thinking of society. He argued that popular culture refers to the standardised production in which is used to manipulate mass society into passivity. Moreover, also claiming that pseudo individualisation is present in the media. For example, chart singles always include the same mainstream artists with similar songs that have similar themes to it from the same genre such as dance, soul, pop, R&B etc in the top 10. As a result, niche artists and genres are being excluded from this list such as rock, classical, alternative etc from being listened to by a mainstream audience. The distinction in society Adorno explained is between 'true art' and 'popular culture'. He says that 'true art' is at the top of the hierarchy and includes music from niche genres like classical, opera and jazz which involves activities such as attending galleries and museums. This 'true art' is associated with bourgeoisie which are the social class who's traditions are most appreciated in contrast with popular culture which is associated with the masses who 'do not understand what true art is' because of the forms of entertainment they cannot access. This can occur as a result of the media's power in influencing a mass audiences in the way they portray music and other types of entertainment. This further allows the to think and adapt to the popular culture.

• Frankfurt School: The Frankfurt school refers to a group of German American theorists who analysed the changes in Western capitalist societies that had occur since the classical theory of Marx.They proposed the Effects model which saw society to be composed of isolated individuals who were gullible to media messages, and visualised the media as a hypodermic syringe, suggesting that the contents of the media were injected into the thoughts of the audience, who accepted these attitudes, opinions and beliefs without questioning it, also highlighting the audience as purely passive. This was due to technology not being as developed as today. The media in general was also heavily controlled by social elites back then so people had no platform or no choice at all to argue with the system in place. Prominent Frankfurt school theorists included, Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno and Herbert Marcuse. Horkheimer and Adorno focused on Hollywood as an example of conflict theory being used to enlighten and emancipate people. Hollywood produced a huge chunk of profit by distributing an endless stream of films, all with the aim to appeal to similar audiences, ensuring the viewer does not have to exert any mental energy to understand the film. The differences that came up in those films were put down to pseudo-individualism to hide the fact that the style of form of these films were identical to each other. Studios spend very large amounts of money promoting bigger and better films with a new brand and a new star with an underlying structural uniformity which the audience are not aware of.

• Antonio Gramsci: Antonio Gramsci was an Italian neo-Marxist theorist and politician who used the term hegemony to denote the predominance of one social class over another. These dominant ideologies can be considered hegemonic due to the power in society and the way it is maintained by constructing ideologies which tend to be promoted by the mass media. For example, the media is more likely to control what is broadcasted to viewers, they are also able to control what shows are censored and what shows are banded and as a result, many musicians self publish their own work including music and videos on sites that are widely accessible to everyone avoiding the media. From this, it allows the artist to have so much more control over their own content and how they want the audience to perceive it.

• Birmingham School: Stuart Hall was a cultural theorist and sociologist who attended the Birmingham school where he theorised issues regarding hegemony and the cultural studies of it. His theory included encoding and decoding:

1. Encoding - The process by which a text is constructed by its producers.
2. Decoding - The way in which an audience reads, understands and interprets a text, spectators will decode the text in a different way.

This is based on how they may interpret music for an active audience, they believe that producers which are the bourgeoisie encode messages within their music which is evidently shown in the repetition in the music and lyrics. However working class audiences may interpret the message differently.

• Dick Hebdige: Hebdige's focused on subcultures in which are significant to the media industry as he argued that the consumption is an active process with differences in audiences social and ideological construction leading to different readings of the same cultural products. He also argued that the audience have a choice whether top resist the power of large companies by finding alternative products to consume which can lead to the audience recognising themselves as different and unique individuals rather than follow the crowd of mainstream viewers.  Certain artists may also display subcultural values, usually through niche genre music which appeals to a subcultural audience. For example, Fall Out Boy are a rock band but most of their music is, pop rock, punk and emo pop. Therefore they appeal to the rock culture as well as the subcultures surrounding it.

Conclusion

Overall, each theory holds significance as they each individually have different view points that all refer to the popular culture theory which all develop from the Marxist theory. They all clarify the division in society and in the music industry as well as th working class being portrayed as being 'too ignorant' as we absorb the information that we are fed by the media and unknowingly follow the popular culture. Whereas, the middle class citizens are portrayed as intelligent as they believe in 'true art' which is predominantly influenced by their upbringing and their hobbies which massively differ from a working class person.

Research: Dyer's 'Star Theory'

Dyer's Star Theory

Introduction: What is Star Theory?

Star theory is a set of meanings that have been constructed around singers in order to sell their music to a mainstream audience. It mainly focuses only on mainstream audiences which means a more loyal fan base equals more money made. Star theory differs from the star image theory as it only applies to pop stars and suggests that the star is not a real person as they are constructed by institutions for financial gain and audience appeal. The stars are constructed through a range of media platforms such as magazines and advertising etc.

Who is Richard Dyer? and What does he say?

"A star is an image not a real person that is constructed (as any other aspect of fiction is) out of a range of materials (e.g advertising, magazines etc as well as films [music])" - Dyer, 1979

Richard Dyer was a British theorist who constructed the idea of 'Star theory'. He believes that celebrities are constructed by institutions for financial reasons to target their specific audience.

What is the difference between a performer and a pop star?

• Performer: A performer may be talented that simply performs songs but not might not be necessarily famous. The term performer and pop star are closely linked however have their distinction that separates the two. A performer are more likely to be promoted to this status by their management to increase the likelihood of fame and the size of their fan base. For example, Josh Kumra that is an artist who is considered to be more of a performer than pop star despite having number 1 in the UK charts, he focuses on performing at smaller venues such as the 02 Academy Brixton and Hotels. He targets a niche audience rather than a large mainstream audience which means he might not be easily recognisable worldwide. 

• Pop Star: The name Beyonce should be very recognisable to everyone, becoming a brand through the use of synergy, promoting her other exciting products such as her perfumes, calenders, adverts etc. A pop star is different to a performer because unlike their niche audience, pop stars are generally specifically constructed go the audiences liking to sell their music more. The talent show 'X-Factor' promotes performers who have potential in becoming a pop stars that the audience like such as the bands 'Little Mix' and 'One Direction' have been created by X-Factor. They started off as performers and then after their success on the show they became globally known to a mainstream audience and a massive fan base.

Dyer has identified 4 key elements to recognising a star:

• Star theory - Stars are seen as constructions: Star theory argues that stars are constructed as artificial images keeping the audience happy by what they want to specifically want to see, it helps if their image contains a unique selling point. Stars such as pop stars have a massive advantage over film stars in that their constructed image may be more consistent than theirs over a period of time. Moreover, a film star is more dependent on the creative input of others such as screenwriters who write stories and lines for them to act out and once that is done, film stars may have to audition for the roles. Stars must be consistent with their fans or else fans will loose interest for example, pop star Britney Spears was extremely slim in her first years of fame but gradually gained noticeable weight which changed her image drastically. This resulted in criticisms from mainstream audiences and even from some of her fans calling her 'less attractive' and 'fat'. As a result, this made her change immediately to maintain her image and construction. However, the construction process is not fully clear and understood. Record companies think they know about it but witness the number of failures on their books. TV programmes show the audience on how an ordinary individual is groomed, style and coached in a specific way to fulfil a set of record company and market expectations to ensure their product (the individual) sells. This is not true stardom which must happen through a combination of other factors.

• Star theory - Industry and audience: Stars are manufactured to serve the purpose of making money out of the audience by ensuring that that they buy the artists records and become loyal fans through that. Pop stars are a product to their record company as they are shaped these companies to make them successful and sell to the audience. Record companies are responsible for identifying what would sell and produces the same and because of this, there is always someone fresh to choose from to keep the audience interested maintaining the quality in the music industry. Another way to produce a star is with a long lasting appeal who once their brand is established, can cater for fans and audiences for decades becoming a commodity. Through this, it is likely to maintain their success and keep the audience satisfied fulfilling their expectations.

• Star theory - Ideology and culture: Stars can also represent cultural values and attitudes and promote a certain ideology. Audiences interests are in these type of values that enhances their 'star quality' and create their star persona. Social network sites such as twitter and facebook give pop stars the opportunity to establish their own values outside their music for example, Lady GaGa on twitter rewets frequently about LGBT issues and expects her fans to engage just as much as she expects them to listen to her music.

• Star theory - Character and personality - Star theory explains that the star is a construct however, the construct has a foundation of realis, Stars provide audiences with a focus of 'what people are supposed to be like'. Stars may provide the audience with the some ideas of 'how you're suppose to behave or look like' and may support hegemony by conforming to it. For example, certain mainstream artists like Beyoncé, Rihanna, Arianna Grande, Justin Bieber etc, provide an 'ideal image' as they have the 'ideal bodies' encouraging many young audiences to conform to. This links to hegemony as the media promotes this is a positive light, informing audiences that 'we should look like this' and that this is the ideal beauty standard of how we must look. However, other stars promote a difference such as Adele who are portrayed as 'cubby and lovable' going against hegemony teaches young audiences to be accepting of who they are despite the negative criticism they may get from the press.

How much control do artists/bands have on their star image?

Artists/bands actually have little control over their star image as large institutions such as their record labels guide and instruct the artist on how to adapt to their image to suit their audiences expectations the most, this is so they are able to be successful within their target audience and be successful. However, it can also be argued that they sometimes do have some control over their star image as they can change how they may look such as their weight, fashion trends, surgery etc which may not necessarily have positive responses from all audiences but its how they choose to be represented in the public eye.

Conclusion

Dyers theory is important as it shows how an artists success can be manipulated by other key factors such as their record labels and how they think their star image should be represented. Without constructing an artists image, it could lead to the artist loosing fans as they are not able to keep up with their mainstream audience expectations. After researching about Dyer's theory, when creating my music video, I want to ensure that I use it to represent my artist with a firm construction to make sure he is perceived by the audience on how I want to ensure a successful video.

Research: Star Image

Introduction: What is a star image?

Star image is the way in which an artist is portrayed by the audience which is also referred as their image, the way they look, dress and behave. Star image is represented though the music videos that are shown to mainstream and international audiences which they are then able to recognise easily.
The artists image is important as it plays a role in determining the success od the artist and also allows the audience to form their own opinions on them. Their star image is further important for the music industry as an artists success determines the industries overall success and their financial gain.

How can music videos help boost an artists career?

• Makes the artist more popular - By making a music video that's successful and with the audience can enhance an artists fame and popularity by making them even more famous in the music industry as their unique music video will be easily recognisable.
• Shows the artist off to a mass audience - A music video is very important as it helps the audience understand what type of music this particular artist produces, further giving them a choice to whether they want to listen to their music or not. Without a music video, an artist may only be known by a smaller audience. There are many different platforms such as YouTube, iTube, iTunes, etc for an artist to use to produce music on and allows them to gain a larger and international audience.
• Promotes the artists image - Through a music video, an artist is able to promote their unique style to the audience and is given the chance to show off their individuality. This could potentially attract the type of audience they're looking for themselves, someone who has the same music taste and other interests like them.
• Music videos live longer than an artists single - Its beneficial for an artist to decide to make a music video as it is unlikely that it will be removed, unless there are problems such as censorship issues. As a result, they are likely to receive many views no matter how old the video might be and will carry on getting views. In contrast to an artists single which doesn't last forever and is very likely for people to stop listening to after the  hype revolving around it has dispersed.
• Artist and audience build a relationship - Creating a music video will allow the audience to build an ongoing relationship between the artist and audience as the audience will gradually feel closer to the artist. Moreover, they can feel closer to the artist and are able to relate to the particular lyrics or narratives within the music video. Through this, the artist is also able to build a fan base.

Music videos can either make you more successful and popular with the audience however, sometimes music videos can also effect an artists career in a negative way. For example, they could be misinterpreted differently to how they initially wanted causing them to loose fans.

Case Study - Kylie Minogue

Kylie Minogue is an example of how her music videos have changed over time discovering how they changed and how this also influenced her image to change as a result.

1980's

• Started in the soap industry 'Neighbours'
• Her target audience was pre-dominantly teenage girls as they were able to relate to Minogue's songs and behaviour.
• She had a star image of an innocent, sweetheart, girly body language
• Her singles were never sexy or based on hard core relationships
• She was a young girl with values, cheerful and chilled
• Her lyrics were often childish and innocent

Early 90's

• Her target audience was between boys and girls in their late teenage years
• She began to intimidate young teenage girls as they were unable to connect or relate to her
• Her appearance also changed as she became more glamorous and sophisticated in a sexual way to attract attention from the opposite sex, also to be admired by other females
• Her dancing became carefully choreographed as became the centre of attention
• Her values drifted more towards the opposite sex
• Her lyrics became more meaningful and mature

Late 90's

• Minogues target audience gradually drifted from teenagers to a wider male audience as her image also changed into a more sexy, sophisticated, mature look
• As her image became more sexy and somewhat daring, she was perceived as more intimidating and empowering for some audiences
• With her image changing, her values also changed. She was portrayed as flirtatious yet independent
• Her dances developed as she began to dance alone in skimpy outfits
• Her lyrics also changed, becoming more confident and daring to the opposite sex for example, "I've got nothin' left to hide."

2000's

• From young teenagers to a predominant male audience, Minogues target audience become young adults in their 20's of both sexes. This was due to Minogue producing music for clubs,
• She become more sexual and this time aggressive and intimidating
• She had more backup dancers and the style was very much daring and sexy
• Her values focused on the importance of being confident in yourself
• Her lyrics changed, intensively becoming more aggressive supported by her daring tone.

Case Study - Miley Cyrus

I also looked a how star from young, Miley Cyrus has changed through her music videos over the years and how this has also influenced her image.

2007

• Miley Cyrus began her career through the popular childrens channel 'Disney' staring in a show called 'Hannah Montanna'. She played the strong female lead role in  the show and was seen as a role model to young female audiences.
• She was already recognised for sweet girl image and charming voice in which she decided to develop her singing career. Her music video '7 Things' released during 2007 portrayed her as an innocent and relatable teen girl who other young females can look up to. In the song, she sang about girl problems and boys which most young girls can relate to therefore making her very popular. Singing about relationships despite her young age was still perceived in an innocent way and not sexual at all. Her values being that every girl experiences heartbreaks no matter he age.
• Wearing minimum makeup with her long curly locks, this image was just another cute and innocent girl, a conventional teen. She is perceived to be wearing vests and skirts in a innocent way and not by exaggerating any of her female assets. 

2010

• In 2010, Miley released another song called 'Cant Be Tamed' and from the previous song she released in 2007 is different which by promotes that shes becoming more rebellious and does not take the audiences opinions into consideration hence the title 'cant be tamed'. She begins to present herself in a provocative way as she wears clothes in which reveal more of her female assets following with close-up shots to really accentuate them. Moreover, she wears more makeup than she does in her other music video which gives her a new image by making her look older than she is. Miley now looks even more glamed up to make her look 'grown up' with blonde highlights all over.
• Her lyrics are relatable to teens which make her very popular among the younger audiences, it tells the audience that she is ambitious and wants to be set free with daring lyrics like 'I cant be tamed, I cant be tamed, I cant be blamed'. This is evident that this is a new stage in Miley's life, she is getting older and she wants to address her young audience of the changes. The close-up and long shots highlight her in the developing stages into adolescence. In addition, her dancing has also changed in a way that involves more back-up dances to have the audience focus on her more. Her values within the video are that individuals should be free to whatever they want to do, do what they believe in and ignore the people that tell you cant.

2013

• In 2013, Miley cyrus really changed up her image despite the fact that many didn't agree with what she had become. She came out with two songs that described how she really felt about the situation and both made a positive and negative impact. Her music video 'Wrecking Ball' portrayed Miley as a changed person evoking harsh criticism and controversy due to her recent situations. It is seen as provocative and controversial as she sits on a large wrecking ball with little clothing, licking the building tools sexually. Her passion is also supported by her red lipstick which connotes her love, lust and passion about the person shes singing about. The younger audience may not relate to her song, instead they perceive her as a threat due to her lyrics and visuals becoming more sexual and intimate rather than playful and light-hearted. 
• Her song 'We Cant Stop' also reflects her own problems in dealing with criticism she got from many people however she just shakes it off. She dances  provocatively and constantly sticks her tongue out making her look more sexually appealing to audiences. She sings about drugs and sex which the younger audience cannot relate to and therefore make people react in a negative way as she has a big influence in the younger audience.

Star image: Sexual, political, moral and social reasons

• Star Image: Sexual - Some individuals can sometimes use music videos in order to exploit or to feel comfortable with their sexuality. For example, Jessie J and Macklemore promote their support for the 'LGBT' community by mentioning it in their songs. Some artists also use it in a way to attract more audiences.

• Star Image: Political - Some artists like Kanye West and George Micheal use their music videos in order to promote their political views on some things to spread awareness to a large audience. This informs and educates the audience about the important political issues. For example, Kanye West's 'Sierra Leone' music video was to present young black children from west African countries who have been through poverty and trafficking. Although, due to his content, the music video was said to be quite controversial.

• Star Image: Moral - Some artists use their music videos as a  way o express their personal opinions on issues in like what they believe in and what is important to them. For example,  Micheal Jackson promotes his opinions and morals about the earth through the 'Earth Song' using realism and harsh imagery to show audiences the damaging that we're doing to the world. This also evokes emotions from the audience and therefore he is able to get his point across effectively.

• Star Image: Social - Some artists also use their music videos to simple represent a type of lifestyle or ideologies they believe in for example, the Saturdays and Drake are portrayed to reflect their own lifestyle within their music videos such as showing off their expensive taste in material things and the type of parties they attend, the lively atmospheres and etc.

Conclusion:

Star image is important as it encourages the audience to form their own opinions about the artists they watch and listen to. Through music videos, viewers are able to make their own decision and opinion on particular things, seeing the transformation of artists can be shocking for the audience as they may discover changes that occur in an artists image and persona over time that can be different from he last time. When creating a music video, I plan to represent my star image in a conventional manor as a mass audience is able to relate to that particular persona, therefore giving the music video a higher chance of success. I will ensure that I follow Dyer and Goodwin's characteristics for this to happen. I want my artist to promote their moral values through the lyrics and their performance as it is important for an artist to draw upon particular issues within society they feel should be addressed or lack the importance they deserve.

Research: Mulvey's Male Gaze

Introduction: What us Mulvey's male gaze?

The 'male gaze' is the way in which females assets are portrayed within many music video to an
audience which often objectify women due to the camera capturing their bodily assets including their breasts and bums attracting and entertaining the heterosexual male audience. Because of this, this could potentially make female audiences angry as they are likely to believe that this portrays all women badly suggesting that all women are vulnerable and should behave this way to please men.

Mulvey's Male Gaze (1975): Who was she and what did she say?

Laura Mulvey is a British feminist film theorist who developed the theory of the 'Male Gaze' in 1975 which is also referred to Mulvey's Male Gaze. She believes that film audiences have to view characters from the perspective of a heterosexual male. This meant that the camera would linger on the females body, curves and other assets which the goal is to entertain and excite heterosexual male viewers. As a result, this relegates women to the status of objects which could anger many female viewers. Furthermore, the male gaze suggests that females are captured as looking sexually appealing with their sexual assets on show through the numerous uses of close-ups and mid-shots. This is to portray them as sexual objects having no real identity. Therefore, also highlights the fact that females are regarded as passive and vulnerable, dominated my male characters.

There are three ways in which feminists perceive this theory, they consider:

1. How men look at women
2. How women look at themselves
3. How women look at other women

Examples of where females are looked at with the 'Male Gaze'

• Chris Brown - Strip

The music video 'Strip' by Chris Brown in a direct song about women 'stripping', taking their clothes off to please men. The male gaze in this video is evident as there are numerous close-ups of half naked women dancing and kissing each other at a party. This video further reinforces the Mulvey's gaze theory as these women are objectified, given no identity but just something the artist and the heterosexual male audience can look at pleasingly. This portrays the male artist as a more superior and dominant individual as he is able to control the situation as the women in the video give what he wants. The lyrics in this video also supports his actions as he sings 'Which one am I going to take home, get my freak on. If you ain't freaky we ain't speaking' which translates to if he doesn't get what he wants, then you don't have a chance. Further enforcing women as sexual objects.

• Robin Thicke - Blurred Lines

The male gaze is very clear in this music video as well as the lyrics. In this music video, Robin Thicke along with his other co-singers watch the women walk by in very revealing clothes (and in the uncensored version, naked). This really dehumanises women and turns them into sexual objects just for the men to watch them, in contrast to the men that are fully clothed wearing suits further illustrating their 'dominant role' as men. The females are captured through medium shots and long shots allowing the audience which is stated by Mulvey, seeing through a heterosexual males eyes to please the audience when watching. In contrast to the shots the male artists get, not really getting shots that linger on them for too long which portrays them as overpowering individuals. This reinforces their dominant nature in comparison to the females who prance around naked trying to gain their attention. The lyrics of the song match the visuals as he sings his quite controversial lyrics 'Okay now that was close, try to domesticate ya but you're an animal. Baby its in your nature. Just let me liberate ya'. These lyrics are very controversial as some argue that it encourages rape culture, portraying women as sex objects and further allowing men to take advantage of women as its 'in their nature' which could 'liberate' them.

• Trey Songz - Foreign

The male gaze is also evident in the music video 'Foreign' by Trey Songz as there are numerous females from around the world in revealing clothes such as short shorts, bikinis etc which exenterates the female assets which allows the camera to capture them in close-ups and mid-shots. The females are perceived as acting sexual and are objectified as they twerk on the artist to try and impress him. Despite there only being one male which is the artist and numerous girls, he still remains in control and dominant as the girls try get his attention by touching and kissing him which further portray women as the inferior sex. The lyrics also objectifies women as it says 'The way she twerk it I just might pull out my Visa. After we leave girl you know where we going, straight to the 'tel you ain't leaving till the morning' which refers to the girl having to go through sexual acts to get something that she is assumed she wants.

Criticism of Mulvey's Male Gaze

• Only see it from a male heterosexuals perspective - This may suggest that they theory only applies to heterosexual males not taking in account other audiences such as lesbian females or homosexual males etc. The theory assumes that only heterosexual males would be interested in the females sexual assets.
• Female opinion is ignored - Some females see the male gaze as disrespecting their sexuality and ignoring their opinions as it displays women as objects an in a promiscuous manner.
• Doesn't consider all women - The male gaze suggests that all women are the same as hey are all promiscuous and objectified in general, lacking respect for themselves however, this is not the case in real life as females starring within the videos are usually models or famous artists. Some may argue that the female assets that are lingered on is there to sell a product however others argue that not all situations where a females body is sexualised in isn't to advertise a product. For example, some women like being looked at e.g. beauty pageants.
• Men can also be gazed at - The male gaze ignores the fact that males can be gazed at by other audiences as it only focuses on female assets and not male assets. Within music videos, males can also ben gazed upon.

Conclusion: With your genre, do you think you might use the 'Male Gaze'?

I may consider using the 'Male Gaze' to an extent as it is evident in the research that I've done, it attracts audiences making it popular and successful. There are specific genres that might use the 'male gaze' more than others such as hip pop, rnb, dance, rap, pop or bashment. All these genres have something in common which is that they are all targeted at the younger audiences ages 15 and above who are more likely to be males. The genre that I'm going with is a mixture of rap and hip pop which would make sense if I use the male gaze as that is what audiences expect from these genres. Although I do disagree on the idea of using the female body to sell my product so I'm not sure if I will use this or not.

Research: Intertexuality

What is intertextuality?

Intertextuality is when an idea in a music video is an ideology or refers to other things within the media, existing past events, famous people, films etc. Artist will include intertextuality in their music videos for various for reasons for example, one being because Goodwin mentions in his theory of music videos that intertextual references is one of the key characteristic that should be and is likely to be evident within all the mainstream music videos. This is because this allows audience to engage in the music video as it can be fun and entertaining to them working out the intertextuality behind it. This further allows the success of the video and encourages it to fulfil these common conventions that mainstream audiences expect. Having intertextuality to a music video can be good and bad for example, it could be quite difficult to understand and sometimes may make the audience feel uncomfortable. However, it can also be beneficial as it is likely to enhance the video making it more entertaining to watch.

Examples of Intertextual References

Previous music videos that include intertextuality references include:

• Naughty Boy ft. Sam Smith - La La La

This song has the intertextuality from the film 'Wizard of Oz'. The 'la la la' in the song is the reference from the film as the young boy represents Dorothy in her journey as he meets similar characters that was in the film. He finds an abandoned dog which resembles the lion, then an old homeless man who is given a heart by the little boy which associates to the tin man. And finally the boy meets with a man dressed in an animal costume reflecting the scarecrow. This is cleverly done as the intertextuality is not too obvious at the start until we see a the boy give the man a heart just like the film. From the intertextuality in this music video, it has helped promote a message and a true story to the audience.

• George Michael - Outside

George Michael's music video 'Outside' has the intertextual reference to his personal life and the major events that had happened. Due to George Michael's incident in the public toilets with another male police officer, in the beginning of the music video, the audience are presented with a couple in the beginning who are kissing in the public toilets. The man then gets arrested as a result, reflects George Michaels real life event. The intertextual reference to his life is further evident throughout the video as other couples begin to kiss in public places such as boats, cars and buildings. Then being caught by cameras that face consequences as a result of their actions. George Michael made this music video with the intertextual reference to what had happened to him as it plays a huge part of who he is today. This was an official video allowing the public know that he was gay.

• Britney Spears - Oops I did it again

Britney Spears into the future music video has the intertextual reference to the film 'Titanic'. In her music video, her lover gives her a necklace as she responds saying "But, I thought the old lady dropped it into the ocean". This is an intertextual reference to when the old lady in the 'Titanic' is seen dropping her necklace into the ocean for her dead lover. The reference made here from the romantic move 'Titanic' is relevant to the couples relationship as it suggests that is as valuable as the couple in 'Titanic".

• Robbie Williams - You know me

In the music video 'You know me' by Robbie Williams is an intertextual reference to 'Alice in Wonderland' as he dresses up as the white rabbit from the film while he performs his song. In the film, the white rabbit is perceived as the character who carries the most knowledge. This further suggest that Robbie Williams is also portraying himself as wise person like the rabbit in the film.

Advantages of intertextuality:

• Entertainment - One of the advantages of having an intertextual reference to a music video is that keeps the audience engaged and entertained. A music video with an intertextual reference is more likely to have better visuals which attracts the audience and therefore is likely to evoke humour from them.
• Allows the audience to get to know the artist better - Intertextual references may be used within a music video for many different reasons. One is to let the audience understand the artists personal opinions and morals they have. This further creates a mutual relationship between audience and artist.

Disadvantages of intertextuality:

• Offensive - Due to the changing values of artists nowadays, they can sometimes have a controversial music video and the intertextual reference they may use might be perceived negatively. It can sometimes be associated with other people that can be quite offensive. For example, Eminem's 'Just loose it' has many different intertextual references of famous people and events and one that is offensive is when he associated with Michael Jackson's nose and Elvis Presley's death, mocking them.
• Influences opinions - Intertextual references are likely to encourage audiences opinions which could potential prevent the audience from having their own thoughts and opinions, instead they take what they see from the artist and feel like they need to agree on what their idol says.
• Spreads negativity - There could be some negative intertextual references which could spread negativity as the audience may be informed about the popular issues that are displayed in the media. Nowadays music videos are broadcasted almost everywhere and can be accessed using different types of media platforms, as a result this could spread the issue widely, epically if the artist has a large, global fan base.
• Artists can lose fans - With controversial intertextual references, it could result in the fans may turning away from the artist, disliking them and the song overall. It contain inappropriate or considered 'taking it too far' and as a result they might not listen or watch the artists content in the future.

Conclusion: Will you use intertextual references in your music video?

After researching about intertextual references and understanding how various artists have used them to either share a personal opinion, send a message to their fans or entertain the audience. I have also learnt that sometimes people can feel offended through the intertextual references that artists use and they could respond in a negative way which could jeopardise their representation or success of their song. I don't want to risk offending anyone as there are many different ways to interpret a reference that's used, someone could perceive differently to the way I initially want it to be intercepted and may offend or upset them.

Research: History of Music Videos

Introduction:

Music videos have changed drastically as modern music videos nowadays differing from traditional
music videos. This is because modern music videos are more advanced as there been technological advancements over several years, they are able to make visually appealing in many ways comparing to traditional music videos that are a little bit on the simpler side. In addition modern music videos are more likely to be narrative or concept based with the artist as the main character acting in their music video. This is the use of star image in which modern music videos use to commonly attract their audiences and create a large and loyal fan base. The use of mise en scene, locations, cinematography and lighting has also changed drastically in comparison to traditional music videos from before that lack these particular elements where modern music videos tend to use more expensive locations, cameras and equipment to attract more audiences.
There has also been a huge development of many genres throughout the years which make modern music videos appeal to all different types of audiences. For example pop music videos are more likely to appeal to younger female audiences whereas rock music videos are more likely to appeal to older males. Despite this, traditional music videos did appeal to a larger audience as there was a limited choice in the type of music that people listened to for example in the early 1900's where there was only one type of music that everyone listened to and not really a diverse selection of genres to pick from. As a result, there wasn't a particular audience these music videos were aimed at, Modern music videos also have different particular purposes nowadays such as for entertainment purposes, films,
trailers and advertisement etc. In comparison to traditional music videos were often used to just accompany an artists song and entertaining the audience. The impact traditional music videos from the impact on modern music videos largely differ from each other as traditional music videos were less likely to contain inappropriate or controversial elements. This could result in a negative impact as well as positive due to the current changes in society today and the morals artists might have. Artists now choose to add controversial content to their music videos which sometimes they know will create a negative impact however does allow a mass audience to acknowledge their work which by definition does make their work successful and popular. Media in addition has also become extremely diverse with social media which is the key player in receiving information. Therefore artists are perceived in a particular way by media audiences, further influencing their music videos and the response it generates. For example, if an artist is given a powerful and likable portrayal from social media platforms, their music videos are more likely to be watched by a larger audience in comparison to an artist who is negatively portrayed that wouldn't get positive responses or views.

Timeline of the history of modern music:

• 23rd December 1938: Number 12 in our series of the 50 key events in the history off jazz music - This marked the first time jazz made a formal recognition for its own history, 'From Spirituals to Swing' was the title of a concert at Carnegie Hall on the 23rd December 1938. The concert was to being to the audience music of African-American origin that many were not quite familiar with. Producer John Hammond assembles an extraordinary group of people, more than 40 performers to this concert. The concert featured such performers as Meade “Lux” Lewis, Pete Johnson, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, Sidney Bechet, Count Basie, Big Joe Turner, Albert Ammons, Sonny Terry, and Helen Humes. The recording of the event is considered one of the most successful live jazz recordings ever produced.

• 1952: Number 13 in our serie of the 50 key eventsin the history of the world and folk-music - There is a famous photograph taken by Allen Ginsberg of 'film-maker' Harry smith 'Transforming milk into milk' in a New York hotel room in 1985. This roughed up some influence of featured recordings from a motley assortment of pre-war characters such as Dock and Boggs or Floyd Ming and his Pep-Steppers. The selection was made on the songs 'strangeness' which as a result critic Greil Marcus revealed 'the old, weird America'. Smith then wrote synopses of the song created from his own artwork including his other with of an etching of a monochord taken from a mystical treatise by 17th-Century English astrologer Robert Fludd. This later revolutionised Greenwich Village folk music in the late 1950's and early 60's.

• 18th January 1987: Number 14 of the 50 key events in the history of dance music - It was during the period in 1987 where dance boogied its way up to the chats. Steve 'Silk' Hurley's 'Jack Your Body' was the first to hit number one despite the fact that it arrived with barely any promotion, a video that was just cut from old black and white films hat had little lyrics. 'Pump Up the Volume' by M/A/R/R/S also jumped itself to the top on the 27th September being one of he first single to exploit the possibilities of sampling. In addition, among the 1987's popular dance hits were Frankie Knuckles' 'Your Love' and Coldcut's 'Say Kids What Time is it'.

Key dates in our history:

• 1929: Songs and moving images - Bessie Smith was an American blues singer who was also nicknamed the 'Empress of the Blues' as she was a popular female blues singer of the 1920's and 30's. Smith is often regarded as one of the greatest singers of her era and had a major influence on other jazz singers later to come. She appeared in the two reel short film 'Saint Louis Blues' in 1929 which featured her performing the hit song. Lip syncing was the first established in this short film and therefore many argue this is in fact the first ever music video. Although many may argue that this doesn't regard this as a music video however, I believe it has true, significant elements of a music video we still see in music videos nowadays. This was to promote a film yet there are many popular artists that do this to promote the film and themselves. Despite there being no clear narrative or concept to the short film Smith did, it still shows her performing to the song which in my opinion is in fact a music video.

• 1940: Songs and moving images - Walt Disney produced an animated film called 'Fantasia' that consisted of eight animated segments set to classical music. Some may argue that this was when music videos were firstly invented. I would have to disagree with this idea as it doesn't properly reflect a music video. Despite the song accompanied with the moving images, there is no evidence of an artist promoted in this piece, in addition, there is no lyrics to the song which in fact doesn't portray a music video. This is a far from a music video as its simply a genre of music associated to the film itself.

• 1920-1940: Songs and moving images - After the film 'Fantasia' many films, animations in particular took the role of accompanying moving images with music. These films include 'Stream boat Willie' (1928) and the famous 'Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs' (1939). Despite its similar elements of including music with moving images, this does not consider to be a music video as there is just basic editing of images to films/musicals which was actually a popular genre of film during this period, not music. I agree with this statement as these films lasted much longer than an average music video. Further it doesn't contain any other characteristics of a music video for example, visuals matching the lyrics or music.

• 1950-1960: Songs and moving images - In 1956, Tony Bennett was filmed walking along Hyde Park, London for his song 'Strange in the Park'. From this, it had resulted in the single/video being distributed all through the US and UK TV. Bennett claims that he made the first music video as a result of this. I believe that this one of the first examples of a music video as it has elements of a music video such as the performance played out and star image that was being presented to the audience.

• 1950-1960: Songs and moving images - Around this time, it was a key moment for The Beatles' song 'A Hard Days Night' that was released in July 10th 1964. This arguably was the set up of a basic visual vocabulary of today's music videos. This had influenced a large number of musicians at the time as many more began to create similar moving images to accompany their music. I do believe that this was also one first, more established music video as it does resemble similar elements of a music video today. It was performance and concept based, there is an evident star image and their surrounded by their beloved fans. The Beatles was already very famous which means that they're was very influential and impacted on many others to start their own music video.

• 1950-1960: Songs and moving images - 'Monkees' was a TV show that aired from 1966 to 1968 and consisted of each episode consisted a specifically made film segment that was created to accompany their songs used in their TV series. Monkees have a song called 'Daydream Believer' displays evident characteristics of a music video as the band are seen singing and playing instruments along to the music. There is also a star image that audiences can focus on and a performance that is evident in the video which suggests that its a music video. Despite this, in my opinion I believe that the Monkees did not invent music videos as they performed during their shows which is not the purpose of a music video.

• 1966: The birth of the top of the pops - Top of the Pops was created to promote singles which meant that many artists competed for air time as Top of the Pops only showed limited number performances and only the best ones that the audience enjoyed most.

• 1950-1960: Songs and moving images - In 1967 music videos began to develop as people began to use techniques from film including film effects, dramatic lighting, camera angles and rhythmic editing. For example, The Beatles video to 'Penny Lane' which consisted of these technological techniques to make  it look more professional and appealing to the audience. It was further supported by the band performing the song and acting in the video. The video is performance and concept based.

Modern Era of music videos!

• 1975: Queen 'Bohemian Rhapsody' The modern music video - Queen is also a very big, popular band with a loyal fan base. They created a music video in order to replace a live performance on TV. Although The Beatles did create videos with their music, Queen were the first to create music videos for it to be specifically played on TV. Bohemian Rhapsody was the first music video to be made on video format and therefore it would be fair to say that this is the first initial music video although it wasn't the first promo film.

• 1970-1980: Songs and moving images - Modern music videos were finally further developed when video recording with editing processes were invented which meant that artists were able to produce videos that were high quality with tape recorders and portable video cameras. This further allowed people to produce promotional videos quickly and cheaply rather than using film which was much more expensive. By the mid 80's, producing a video to support a new single and promoting an artist was becoming the norm and because of this artists were using high budgets to create these videos. For example, The Jacksons spent money on their costumes and focused a lot of time on the mise en scene to ensure their videos were of high quality. This helped attract the audience from their pleasing visuals.

• 1981: MTV launch and development of music videos - MTV was first launched in 1981 with the first video to be aired being Buggles. 'Video killed the radio star', which was trying to prove that once music videos were invented and began to become more popular, the number of radio listeners decreased and so did its popularity.

• 1984: Michael Jackson's Thriller... and the concept of short film - After Michael Jackson's thriller, the concept of a short film was being established in the music community. A short film is a music video with a clear beginning, middle and end. Michael Jackson's 'Thriller' music video took this into account when creating his iconic music video. 'Top of the Pops' started to censor video content that was considered inappropriate or controversial that could've upset people. This was actually another tactical way in promoting an artist or single by using controversial ideas that would produce publicity and help promote its release. More early examples of this was Duran Duran's 'Girls on film' which included females with little clothing who were portrayed in a promiscuous and vulnerable manner in contrast to the dominant males that were in the video too.

• 1980: MTV and musical success - By the mid 1980's, music video began to play central role in popular music marketing as many artists began experimenting and creating music videos sue to its popularity. There were many artists such as Madonna who owed a great deal of her success to her skilful construction and seductive appeal to her music videos that changed the game and influenced many others. There are many people that see MTV as the start of the 'golden era' of music videos that helped the success of a new art form in popular culture. Others see it as the death of true musical art as it should be appreciated not by its physical appearance.

How have music videos changed over time?

Music has changed so much and have changed in a  number of ways over the years. The key players in the ways that music has changed over the years are associated with the development of technology, value, formats, representations and the importance of music videos.

• Development of Technology - Before music videos began to develop and before the modern era, there was little technology to use whilst making music videos. The little music videos that were being produced tended to be low quality and lacking professionalism however, due to the increase of technology advancements such as editing and sound programmes have enhanced the music videos quality in how they look and sound. This could mean that there is a big deal in music videos which now more and more artists are putting the vast amount of time and money in. For example if we compare the two famous bands from two different eras, The Beatles and One Direction. In their music videos we can see a big difference in the quality through visuals and audio. There are also huge differences in editing techniques and programmes that were used. Furthermore, The Beatles are seen in their music videos playing instruments whereas One Direction who are not. This highlights the changes that has taken place such as the sound programmes that encourage artists to steer away from performance based music videos and focus on narrative based performances instead. There has a big improvement in technology which has enabled music videos to be globally viewed on many different media platforms including social media, YouTube, iTunes, Spotify, etc.

• Formats - Music videos can now be saved in various formats including WAV, PCM, AIFF, PCM etc. Because of these formats, nowadays videos are able to be synced onto iTunes ad other music programmes allowing the audience to further  use different forms of media to listen to their favourite music videos such as YouTube, iTunes, gaming consoles, internet etc. 

• Representations - Over the years, artists are represented differently to how they were before. Often artists are portrayed as living the lavish lifestyles which has resulted the different ways that males and females are portrayed. For example females are objectified and seen as vulnerable in comparison to males who are seen as more dominant. In the past representations were different as there were more male artists than female ones. Due to the feminism movement not yet existing before and males were mot portrayed as dominating, just as role models perceived as attractive towards the female fan base.

• Music video importance - The importance of music videos have massively decreased as their  is now less emphasis on them due to other forms of media being sued by media audiences to listen to music. Before just when music videos were newly introduced, they were portrayed as more important as it caused hype for the audiences. However, the lack of importance has led to artists using different ways in promoting their music for example, films and adverts. An example of this would be Ellie Goulding's song 'Love me like you do' and The Weeknd 'Earned It' to promote the film 'Fifty shades of grey'.

• Values - Artists nowadays gave more values than in the past ensuring that hey made music videos that did not portray them in the negative manner. However artists today have less values and its ore about getting out there and making your name recognisable. They make choose to put out controversial content to create hype and publicity such as Madonna who does not consider other peoples opinions yet is very popular.

Conclusion: Why is it important know about the history and what ideas have you gathered?

From the research I've done on the history of music videos, I know understand how music videos have developed over the years comparing to the traditional music videos. Overall, I now know that idea of music videos as a whole came from Tony Bennett and the Beatles who created videos to accompany their music. Their work therefore created an impact on other artist to pursue this idea making it popular. Michael Jackson created a more advanced music video by making a short film for his song thriller which was very popular and was included in 'The top of the pops'. All these traditional music videos have led to modern music videos using them as a guide and becoming higher quality due to the developments in technology, formats, representation, music video importance and values.